Jazz

Jazz

Jazz is a music genre that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions.

From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music.^[1] Its West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note^[2] but one of jazz's iconic figures Art Blakey has been quoted as saying, "No America, no jazz. I’ve seen people try to connect it to other countries, for instance to Africa, but it doesn’t have a damn thing to do with Africa".^[3]

The word "jazz" began as a West Coast slang term of uncertain derivation and was first used to refer to music in Chicago in about 1915.

From its beginnings in the early 20th century, Jazz has spawned a variety of subgenres, from New Orleans Dixieland dating from the early 1910s, big band-style swing from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop from the mid-1940s, a variety of Latin jazz fusions such as Afro-Cuban and Brazilian jazz, and free jazz from the 1950s and 1960s, jazz fusion from the 1970s and late 1980s developments such as acid jazz, which blended funk and hip-hop influences into jazz.

As the music has spread around the world it has drawn on local national and regional musical cultures, its aesthetics being adapted to its varied environments and giving rise to many distinctive styles.

Ragtime

The abolition of slavery led to new opportunities for the education of freed African-Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide "low-class" entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, by which many marching bands formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.^[21][22]

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895; two years later Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo "Rag Time Medley".^[23][24] Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his Harlem Rag, that was the first rag published by an African-American. The classically-trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his "Original Rags" in the following year, then in 1899 had an international hit with "Maple Leaf Rag." He wrote numerous popular rags, including, "The Entertainer", combining syncopation, banjo figurations and sometimes call-and-response, which led to the ragtime idiom being taken up by classical composers including Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. Blues music was published and popularized by W. C. Handy, whose "Memphis Blues" of 1912 and "St. Louis Blues" of 1914 both became jazz standards.

Swing



The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, and Artie Shaw.




Latin jazz

Latin jazz combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries, often played on instruments such as conga, timbale, güiro, and claves, with jazz and classical harmonies played on typical jazz instruments (piano, double bass, etc.). There are two main varieties: Afro-Cuban jazz was played in the US right after the bebop period, while Brazilian jazz became more popular in the 1960s. Afro-Cuban jazz began as a movement in the mid-1950s as bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor started Afro-Cuban bands influenced by such Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians as Xavier Cugat, Tito Puente, and Arturo Sandoval. Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English. The style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim. The related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of bossa nova compositions to the jazz idiom by American performers such as Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd.

Bossa nova was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of Chega de Saudade on the Canção do Amor Demais LP, composed by Vinícius de Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The initial releases by Gilberto and the 1959 film Black Orpheus brought significant popularity in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a worldwide boom with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça Jobim) and Frank Sinatra (Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim), and the entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music for several decades and even up to the present.

Antonov

Antonov An-225

The An-225 Mriya (Ukrainian: Антонов Ан-225 Мрія, NATO reporting name: 'Cossack') is a strategic airlift transport aircraft which was built by the Antonov Design Bureau, USSR. It is the world's largest fixed-wing aircraft. The design, built to transport the Buran orbiter, was an enlargement of the successful An-124 Ruslan. Mriya (Мрiя) means "Dream" (Inspiration) in Ukrainian.

The Antonov An-225 is commercially available for flying any over-sized payload due to the unique size of its cargo deck. Currently there is only one aircraft operating.

Development

The An-225 was designed for the Soviet space program as a replacement for the Myasishchev VM-T. Able to airlift the Energia rocket's boosters and the Buran space shuttle, its mission and objectives are almost identical to that of the United States' Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.^[2]

The An-225 first flew on 21 December 1988. The aircraft was on static display at the Paris Air Show in 1989 and it flew during the public days at the Farnborough air show in 1990. Two aircraft were ordered, but only one An-225 (tail number UR-82060^[3]) is currently in service. It is commercially available for carrying ultra-heavy and oversize freight, up to 250,000 kg (550,000 lb) internally,^[2] or 200,000 kg (440,000 lb) on the upper fuselage. Cargo on the upper fuselage can be 70 metres (230 ft) long.^[4]

A second An-225 was partially built during the late 1980s for use by the Soviet space program. The design of the second An-225 included a rear cargo door and a redesigned tail with a single vertical. It would be more effective for cargo transportation.^[5] Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 and the cancellation of the Buran space program, the lone operational An-225 was placed in storage in 1994.^[6] The six Ivchenko Progress engines were removed for use on An-124s, and the second uncompleted An-225 airframe was also stored. The first An-225 was later re-engined and put into service.

By 2000, it had become apparent of the need for additional An-225 capacity, the decision was made in September 2006 to complete the second An-225. The second airframe was scheduled for completion around 2008,^[7] then delayed. By August 2009, the aircraft had not been completed and work had been abandoned.

Design
Based on Antonov's earlier An-124, the An-225 has fuselage barrel extensions added fore and aft of the wings, which received root extensions. Two more Ivchenko Progress D-18T turbofan engines were added to the new wing roots, bringing the total to six, and an increased-capacity landing gear system with 32 wheels was designed. The An-124’s rear cargo door and ramp were removed to save weight, and the empennage was changed from a single vertical stabilizer to a twin tail with an oversized horizontal stabilizer. The twin tail was essential to enable the plane to carry very large and heavy external loads, which would otherwise disturb the aerodynamics of a conventional tail. Unlike the An-124, the An-225 was not intended for tactical airlifting and is not designed for short-field operation.^[2]

Initially the 225 had a maximum gross weight of 600 tonnes (1,320,000 lb) but the aircraft was modified in 2000-01, at a cost of US$20M, with a reinforced floor which allowed increasing the maximum gross weight to 640 tonnes (1,410,000 lb),^[9][10][11]

Both the earlier and later takeoff weights establish the An-225 as the world's heaviest aircraft, being heavier than the double-decker Airbus A380 even though Airbus plans to pass the An-225's maximum landing weight with 591.7 tonnes (1,304,000 lb) for the A380.^[12] The Hughes H-4 Hercules, known to most as the "Spruce Goose", had a greater wingspan and a greater overall height, but was considerably shorter, and due to the materials used in its construction, also lighter. In addition, the Hercules only flew once and never climbed above 21.3 m (70 ft), making the An-225 the largest aircraft in the world to take off multiple times.^[13] The An-225 is not only larger than the Airbus A380 airliner, it is also considerably bigger than the Antonov An-124, Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter, and Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, the nearest equivalent heavy cargo aircraft.

An-124

The Antonov An-124 Ruslan (Ukrainian and Russian: Антонов Ан-124 «Руслан») (NATO reporting name: 'Condor') was the largest airplane in production until the Antonov An-225 was built. During development it was known, in house, as Izdeliye 400 and An-40 in the West. First flown in 1982, civil certification was issued by the CIS Interstate Aviation Committee on 30 December 1992.^[3] Over forty are currently in service (26 civilian models with airlines and 10 firm orders as of August 2006) and 20 were in commercial use in 1998^[4] in Ukraine, Russia, the United Arab Emirates and Libya.

Concorde

Concorde

The Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde aircraft is a turbojet-powered supersonic passenger airliner, a supersonic transport (SST), which flew from 1969 to 2003. It was a product of an Anglo-French government treaty, combining the manufacturing efforts of Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation. (The French word concorde translates to the English concord as agreement, harmony, or union.) Concorde entered service with Air France and British Airways in 1976.

Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London Heathrow (British Airways) and Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport (Air France) to New York JFK and Washington Dulles, flying these routes at record speeds, in less than half the time of other airliners.

With only 20 aircraft built, the development phase represented a substantial economic loss. Additionally, Air France and British Airways were subsidised by their governments to buy the aircraft. As a result of the type’s only crash, (on 25 July 2000), economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks, and other factors, operations ceased on 24 October 2003. The last "retirement" flight occurred on 26 November 2003.^[3]

Concorde remains an aviation icon, and has acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde".

Development

In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom, France, United States and Soviet Union were considering developing supersonic transport. The British Bristol Aeroplane Company and the French Sud Aviation were both working on designs, called the Type 223 and Super-Caravelle, respectively. Both were largely funded by their respective governments.^[6] The British design was for a thin-winged delta shape^[7] (which owed much to work by Dietrich Küchemann) for a transatlantic-ranged aircraft for about 100 people, while the French were intending to build a medium-range aircraft.

The designs were both ready to start prototype construction in the early 1960s, but the cost was so great that the British government made it a requirement that BAC look for international co-operation.^[6] Approaches were made to a number of countries, but only France showed real interest. The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. A draft treaty was signed on 28 November 1962. By this time, both companies had been merged into new ones; thus, the Concorde project was between the British Aircraft Corp. and Aerospatiale.

At first the new consortium intended to produce one long range and one short range version. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped. The consortium secured orders (i.e., non-binding options) for over 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC and Air France were the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC, Middle East Airlines and TWA.^{[citation needed]}

The aircraft was initially referred to in the UK as "Concorde", with the French spelling, but was officially changed to "Concord" by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. In 1967, at the French roll-out in Toulouse the British Government Minister for Technology, Tony Benn announced that he would change the spelling back to "Concorde".^[8] This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale)." In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "[Y]ou talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland’s contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "[I]t was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) — and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!"^[9]

Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by Andre Turcat, and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw.^[10] As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971. Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new Dallas-Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport’s opening.

These trips led to orders for over 70 aircraft, but a combination of factors led to order cancellations: the 1973 oil crisis, financial difficulties of airlines, a spectacular Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, and environmental concerns such as the sonic boom, takeoff-noise and pollution. By 1976 four nations remained as prospective buyers: Britain, France, China, and Iran.^[11] In the end only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made. In the case of BA, 80% of the profit was kept by the government until 1984, while the cost of buying the aircraft was covered by a state loan.^[12]

The United States cancelled its supersonic transport (SST) programme in 1971. Two designs had been submitted; the Lockheed L-2000, looking like a scaled-up Concorde, lost out to the Boeing 2707, which was intended to be faster, to carry 300 passengers and feature a swing-wing design. Industry observers in France and the United Kingdom suggested that part of the American opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution was orchestrated by, or at least encouraged by, the United States Government, out of spite at not being able to propose a viable competitor,^{[citation needed]} despite President John F. Kennedy's impassioned 1963 statement of commitment.^[13] Other countries, such as India and Malaysia, ruled out Concorde supersonic overflights due to noise concerns.^[14][15]

Demonstration and test flights were flown from 1974 onwards. The testing of Concorde set records that have not been surpassed; the prototype, pre-production and first production aircraft undertook 5,335 flight hours. A total of 2,000 test hours were at supersonic speeds. Unit costs were £23 million (US$46 million) in 1977. Development cost was six times the projected amount.

Design

General features

Concorde was an ogival (also "ogee") delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those originally developed for the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. The engines were jointly built by Rolls-Royce and SNECMA. Concorde was the first civil airliner to have an (in this case analogue) fly-by-wire flight control system. It also employed a distinctive droop snoot lowering nose section for visibility on approach.

The principal designer who worked on the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy.^[17]

Concorde had an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (about 2,140 km/h or 1,330 mph) with a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 metres (60,000 feet), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. The average landing speed was 298 km/h (185 mph, 160 knots).

Concorde pioneered the following technologies:

For high speed and optimisation of flight:

• Double-delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings
• Variable inlet ramps controlled by digital computers^[18]
• Supercruise capability
• Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today’s FADEC-controlled engines^[18]
• Droop-nose section for improved visibility in landing

For weight-saving and enhanced performance:

• Mach 2.04^[19] (~2,200 kilometres per hour (1,400 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, although turbojet engines are more efficient at high speed))
• Mainly aluminium construction for low weight and conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium)
• Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle^[20] allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climbout to landing
• Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems^[21]
• Multifunction flight control surfaces
• High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic systems components^[22]
• Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system^[23]
• Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control
• Parts made using "sculpture milling" from single alloy billet reducing the part-number count, while saving weight and adding strength
• Lack of Auxiliary power unit relying on the fact that Concorde will be used for services to big airports, where a ground air start cart would be available

The Concorde programme’s primary legacy is in the experience gained in design and manufacture which later became the basis of the Airbus consortium.^[18] Snecma Moteurs' involvement with the Concorde programme prepared the company's entrance into civil engine design and manufacturing, opening the way for Snecma to establish CFM International with General Electric and produce the successful CFM International CFM56 series engines.

Although Concorde was a technological marvel when introduced into service in the 1970s, 30 years later its cockpit, cluttered with analogue dials and switches, looked dated. The avionics of Concorde were unique as it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits, these were a combination of discrete electronic components and silicon microcircuits.^[21] There had been little commercial pressure or reason to upgrade Concorde either in terms of enhanced avionics or passenger comfort due to a lack of competiting aircraft, unlike what happened with other airliners of the same vintage, for example the Boeing 747.^[24] At the time of its retirement, it was the last aircraft in British Airway's fleet that still had a Flight Engineer, all other aircraft, such as the modernised 747-400, had eliminated their role.^[25]

The key partners, BAC (later to become British Aerospace and subsequently BAE Systems) and Aerospatiale (which was later merged into EADS), were the joint owners of Concorde's type certificate. Responsibility for the Type Certificate transferred to Airbus with formation of Airbus SAS.

AIRBUS

AIRBUS
Airbus S.A.S. is the commercial aircraft manufacturer based in Toulouse, France. The company was founded in 2001 under French law as a join stock company that facilitated or "SAS" (Société par Actions Simplifiée).

Airbus held by EADS (80%) and BAE SYSTEMS (20%), two providers and producing the largest military. Also known as Airbus Industrie first name, or Airbus.

Airbus employs around 40,000 people in several European countries. Final assembly took place in Toulouse, France and Hamburg, Germany, although the construction carried out in several factories in Europe.

History:

Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms to compete with American companies like Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. Formed in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) (followed by CASA (Spain) in 1971) to develop the Airbus A300, which first flew in 1972.

In 1979 British Aerospace (now BAE SYSTEMS) joined with Airbus. With 38% shares respectively held by Germany and France, 20% held by English and Spanish holding 4%.

Initially a loose alliance but that changed in 2000 when DASA, and CASA merged to form EADS and BAE and 2001 when EADS formed the Airbus Integrated Company to develop the A380, which is a plane with 555 passengers and the largest aircraft in the world's largest commercial at the start operational in 2006. A380 aircraft was launched on January 18, 2005.

A380

hen the first aircraft built and flown up into the size of the aircraft continues to be made bigger. in 1950 boeing 707 large produce. later in the year 1970, produce and launch boeing 747 boeing larger again. In 2006, the aircraft giant "A380" new up into.

The A380 has four engines, Rolls-Royce engines trent 900 to 36,280 pounds thrust turbofans or four alliance egine Gp 7200, with 37,003 pounds thrust.

The standard version of the A380 plane has 854 seats for passengers, while the A380-900 has 1000 seats for passengers. above this plane is the central spending, where the children play, and other facilities.
A330

The Airbus A330 is a large-capacity, wide-body, twin-engine, medium-to-long-range commercial passenger airliner. Built at Toulouse in France by Airbus, over 600 units have been delivered.

First flown in 1992, the A330 was developed at the same time as the four-engined Airbus A340, and was designed with common fuselage and wing components. The first variant (series 300) was delivered to Air Inter in 1994 and was followed by the slightly shorter series 200.^[4] This has been followed by dedicated freighter and tanker variants.

Design and development

The A330 and A340 programs were jointly launched in November 1987.^[4] Airlines purchased it to replace the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. The A330 is 38% more fuel efficient than the DC-10.^[5]

Airbus intended the A330 to compete directly in the ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operation Performance Standards) market, specifically with the Boeing 767. In November 2009 the A330 became the first aircraft to receive with ETOPS-240 approval, which is now offered by Airbus as an option. [1].

The A330's fuselage and wings are virtually identical to those of the smaller A340 variants, although it has different engines. The A330 basic fuselage design is inherited from the Airbus A300, and the nose/cockpit section and the fly-by-wire system and flightdeck are inherited from the A320. Both the A330 and A340 are assembled on the same final assembly line at Toulouse-Blagnac, France.

By the end of November 2009 a total of 1,035 A330s have been ordered and 654 delivered.^[1] The 1,000 milestone was passed with orders from the 2008 Farnborough Air Show. The largest operators of the A330 are Delta Air Lines and Cathay Pacific with 32 aircraft in service each.^{[citation needed]} Airbus expects the A330 to continue selling until at least 2015.^[6]

A300-600ST

The Airbus A300-600ST (Super Transporter) or Beluga is a version of the standard A300-600 wide-body airliner modified to carry aircraft parts and over-sized or awkward cargo. It was officially called the Super Transporter at first, but the name Beluga became popular and has now been officially adopted.